Act 1 English

Behold, Augustus, the great pompe and state
Of these thy playes payd deere for, at hye rate.

9. And could any inferiour quality bee more worthily esteemed or noblier graced then to have princes of such magnificence and state to bestow on them places of such port and countenance,? Had they been never well regarded they had been never so sufficiently provided for, nor would such worthy princes have strivd who should (by their greatest expence and provision) have done them the amplest dignity, had they not with incredible favour regarded the quality. I will not traverse this too farre, least I incurre some suspition of selfe-love, I rather leave it to the favourable consideration of the wise, though to the perversnesse of the ignorant, who had they any taste either of poseie, phylosophy, or historicall antiquity would rather stand mated at [checkmated by] their owne impudent ignorance then against such noble, and notable examples stand in publicke defiance. I read of a theater built in the midst of the river Tyber, standing on pillers and arches, the foundation wrought under water like London-bridge, the nobles and ladyes in their barges and gondelayes [gondolas] landed at the very stayres of the galleryes. After these they composed others, but differing in forme from the theater or amphi-theater, and every such was called circus, the frame globe-like, and merely round:

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16. And the yeare from the first building of Rome five hundred threescore and seven, what time Spurius Posthumus Albinus and Quintus Martius Philippus, were consuls, Nero made one, and the noble Flaminius another, but the greatest was founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and was called Circus Maximus In this the gladiators practised. The widenesse and spaciousnesse was such that in it they fought at barriers [their starting gates], and many times ran at tilt. Dion records eighteene elephants slaine at once in one theater. More particularly to survey the rarer monuments of Rome, neere to the Pantheon (the temple of the Roman gods) at the discent from the hil Capitolinus lies the great Forum, by which is scituate the great amphi-theater of Tytus, first erected by Vespatian, but after (almost ruined by fire) by the Roman Tytus rarely reedified. It is called Colliseus, also a cavea, which signifies a scaffold, also arena, a place of combate, by Silvianus and Prudentius, which name Tertullian, Pliny, Ovid, Firmicus, and Apuleius likewise give it. It had the title of circus, caula, and stadium, by Suetonius, Capitolinus and Arcadius. Cassianus affirmes these theaters consecrated to Diana Taurica, Tertullian, to Mars and Diana, Martiall to Jupiter Latiaris and to Stigian Pluto, whose opinion Minutius and Prudentius approve. The first structures were by the tribune Curio, which Dio, lib. 37. affirmes. Vitruvius lib. 5. saith, multa theatra Romae structa quotannis. Of Julius Caesars amphi-theater Campo Martio Dio Cassius records, which Augustus after patronized, as Victor remembers of them, whose charge Statlius Taurus assisted, of whom Dio speaketh thus, ὸ Ταῦρος Στατίλιος θέατρον &^c. anno urbis DCCXXV. Pub. Victor forgets not Circus Flamiinii, and Suetonius remembers one builded by Caligula at Septa, whose building Claudius at first interdicted.Nero erected a magnificent theater in the field of Mars.
Publius Victor speakes further of a castrense theatrum, a theater belonging to the campe, in the country of the Aesquiles, built by Tiberius Caesar , and of Pompies theater Pliny witnesseth. The great theater of Statilius, being in greatest use, was burnt in the time of Nero, which Xiphilinus thus speakes of, τό τε παλάτιον, τὸ ὄρος σύμπαν καὶ τὸ θέατρον τοῦ Ταύρου ἐκαύθη. This was built in the middest of the old citty, and after the combustion repaired by Vespatian consulatu suo 8, whose coyne of one side beares the expresse figure of his theater, yet was it onely begun by him, but perfected by his sonne Tytus. Eutropius and Cassiodorus attribute this place soly to Titus, but Aurelius Victor gives him onely the honour of the perfecting a place so exquisitely begun, This after was repaired by Marcus Anthonius Pius, by whose cost, sayth Capitolinus, the temple of Hadrianus was repaired and the great theater reedified, which Heliogabalus, by the testimony of Lampridius, patronized, and after the Senate of Rome tooke to their protection under the Gordians.
Touching theaters without Rome, Lypsius records theatra circa Romani, extructa passim, even in Jerusalem, Herodes magnificus et illustris rex non vuno loco Iudeae amphi-heatra aedificavit, extruxit in ipsa urbe sacra (as Josephus saith). Herod, a magnificent and illustrious king, not in one place of Judea erected amphitheaters, but even in the holy citty hee built one of greatest receit. Also in Greece, Asia, Affricke, Spaine, France, nor is there any province in which their ancient structures do not yet remaine or their perishing ruines are not still remembred. In Italy, ad Lyrim Campaniae fluvium iuxta Minturnas, remaines part of an ample amphi-theater.
At Puteolis, a city by the sea-side in Campania, 8 miles from Naples, one.
At Capua, a magnificent one of sollid marble.
Alba in Italy, one.
At Oriculum in Umbria one.
At Verona, one most beautifull.
At Florens, one whose compasse yet remaines.
At Athens in Greece, one of marble.
Pola in Istria, by the Hadriaticke sea, one described by Sebastian Serlius.
At Hyspalis in Spaine, one built without the walles of the citty.
at one of squared stone, the length 30 perches or poles, the bredth 2.
At Arelate one.
At Burdegall one
.At Nemaus one, remembred by Eusebius. in Ecclesiasica Historia.
At Lygeris one.
Another among the Helvetians.
src="spacer.gif" alt="spacer" width="15" height="7">13. The Vernese theatrum marmoreum, erected before the time of Augustus, as Torellus Seayna in his description of Verna records. But Cyrnicus Anconitanus reports it built in the nine and thirtieth yeare of Octavian. Carolus Sigonius referres it to the reigne of Maximinian, who saith, Maximinian built theaters in Mediolanum, Aquilea, and Brixium. The like Cornelius Tacitus 2. Hist. remembers in Placentia, the description of the Verona theater Levinus Kersmakerus sets downe. This the great King Francis anno 1539 gave to certaine actors, who thirty dayes space together represented in the same the Acts of the Apostles, nor was it lawfull by the edict of the king for any man to remove any stone within thirty poles of his scituation, lest they should endanger the foundation of the theater.
The like have been in Venice, Millan, Padua. In Paris ther are divers now in use by the French kings comedians, as the Burgonian and others. Others in Massilia, in Trevers, in Magontia, in Agripina, and infinite cities of Greece, Thebes, Carthage, Delphos, Creet, Paphos, Epyrus, also in the citie Tydena. So at Civil in Spaine, and at Madrill, with others.
At the entertainement of the Cardinall Alphonsus, Archduke Alphonsus., and the Infant of Spaine into the Low-countryes, they were presented at Antwerpe, with sundry pageants and playes. The King of Denmark, father to him that now reigneth, entertained into his service a company of English comedians commended unto him by the honourable the Earle of Leicester. The Duke of Brounswicke and the Landsgrave {Landgraf] of Hesse retaine in their courts entertaine certaine of ours of the same quality. But among the Romans they were in highest reputation, for in comparison of their playes they never regarded any of their solemnities, there ludi funebres, their Floralia, Cerealia, Fugalia, Bachinalia, or Lupercalia.
And amongst us one of our best English chroniclers records, that when Edward the Fourth would shew himselfe in publicke state to the view of the people, hee repaired to his palace at S. Johnes, where he accustomed to see the citty actors. And since then that house, by the princes free gift, hath belonged to the office of the Revels, where our court playes have beene in late daies yearely rehersed, perfected, and corrected before they come to the publike view of the prince and the nobility. Ovid, speaking of the tragicke Muse, thus writes.

17. Well knew the poet what estimation she was in with Augustus when he describes her holding in her left hand a scepter. Now to recite some famous actors that lived in the preceding ages, the first comedians were Cincius and Falisius, the first tragedians were Minutius, and Prothonius. Elius Donatus in his preface to Terence his Andrea saith that in that comedy Lucius Attilius, Latinus Prenestinus, and Lucius Ambivius Turpio were actors,: this comedy was dedicated to Cibil [Cybele], and such were called ludi Megalenses, acted in the yeare that M. Fuluius was edilis and Quintus Minutius Valerius and M. Glabrio were curules, which were counsellers and chiefe officers in Rome, so called because they customably sate in chayres of ivory. The songs that were sung in this comedy were set by Flaccus, the sonne of Clodius. Terence his Eunuchus or second comedy was acted in the yeare L. Posthumus, and L. Cornelius were edili curules, Marcus Valerius and Caius Fannius consuls. The yeare from the building of Rome 291, in his Adelphi one Protinus acted and was highly applauded, in his Hecyra Julius Servius. Cicero commends one Rupilius, a rare tragedian. I read of another called Arossus, another called Theocrines, who purchased him a great applause in the playes called Terentini. There were other playes in Rome called Actia and Pythia, made in the honour of Apollo for killing the dragon Python. In those one Aesopus bare the praise, a man generally esteemed, who left behind him much substance, which Clodius his sonne after possest:

18. Labericus was an excellent poet, and a rare actor, who writ a booke of the gesture and action to be used by the tragedians and comedians in performance of every part in his natiue humor. Plautus himselfe was so inamored of the actors in his dayes that hee published many excellent and exquisite comedies yet extant. Aristotle commends one Theodoretes to be the best tragedian in his time. This in the presence of Alexander personated Achilles, which so delighted the emperour that hee bestowed on him a pension of quinque mille drachmae, five thousand drachmaes, and every thousand drachmaes are twenty nine pounds, three shillings, foure pence sterling.

19. Roscius, whom the eloquent orator and excellent statesman of Rome Marcus Cicero for his elegant pronuntiation and formall gesture called his jewell, had from the common tresury of the Roman exchequer a daily pention allowed him of so many sestertiji as in our coine amount to 16 pound and a marke or thereabouts, which yearely did arise to any noble mans revenues. So great was the fame of this Roscius, and so good his estimation, that learned Cato made a question whether Cicero could write better then Roscius could speake and act, or Roscius speake and act better then Cicero write. Many times when they had any important orations, to be with an audible and loud voyce delivered to the people, they imployed the tongue and memory of this excellent actor, to whom for his worth the senate granted such large exhibition:

20. To omit all the doctors, zawnyes [zanies], Pantaloones, Harlakeenes, in which the French, but especially the Italians, have beene excellent, and according to the occasion offered to do some right to our English actors, as Knell, Bently, Mils, Wilson, Crosse, Lanam, and others, these, since I never saw them, as being before my time, I cannot (as an eye-witnesse of their desert) give them that applause which no doubt they worthily merit, yet by the report of many juditial auditors their performance of many parts have been so absolute that it were a kinde of sinne to drowne their worths in Lethe and not commit their (almost forgotten) names to eternity. Heere I must needs remember Tarleton, in his time gratious with the Queene his soveraigne, and in the peoples generall applause, whom succeeded Wil. Kemp, as wel in the favour of her majesty as in the opinion and good thoughts of the generall audience. Gabriel, Singer, Pope, Phillips, Sly, all the right I can do them is but this, that though they be dead, their deserts yet live in the remembrance of many. Among so many dead let me not forget one yet alive in his time the most worthy, famous Maister Edward Allen. To omit these, as also such as for divers imperfections may be thought insufficient for the quality, actors should be men pick’d out personable, according to the parts they present; they should be either that, though they cannot speake well, know how to speake, or else to have that volubility that they can speake well, though they understand not what and so both imperfections may by instructions be helped and amended. But where a good tongue and a good conceit both faile there can never be good actor.

21. I also could wish that such as are condemned for their licentiouanesse might by a generall consent bee quite excluded our society. For as we are men that stand in the broad eye of the world, so should our manners, gestures, and behaviours savour of such government and modesty to deserve the good thoughts and reports of all men, and to abide the sharpest censures even of those that are the greatest opposites to the quality. Many amongst us I know to be of substance, of government, of sober lives and temperate carriages, house-keepers, and contributary to all duties enjoyned them, equally with them that are rank’t with the most bountifull. And if amongst so many of sort there be any few degenerate from the rest in that good demeanor which is both requisite and expected at their hands, let me entreat you not to censure hardly of all for the misdeeds of some, but rather to excuse us, as Ovid doth the generality of women:

Others there are of whom should you aske my opinion, I must refer you to this, consule theatrum [“consult the theater”]

22. Here I might take fit opportunity to reckon up all our English writers, and compare them with the Greeke, French, Italian, and Latine poets, not only in their pastorall, historicall, elegeicall and heroicall poems, but in their tragicall and comicals subjects, but it was my chance to happen on the like learnedly done by an approved good scholler in a booke called Wits Comon-wealth, to which treatise I wholy referre you, returning to our present subject. Julius Caesar himselfe for his pleasure became an actor, being in shape, state, voyce, judgement and all other occurrents exterior and interior excellent. Amongst many other parts acted by him in persom, it is recorded of him, that with generall applause in his owne theater he played Hercules Furens, and amongst many other arguments of his compleatnesse, excellence, and extraordinary care in his action, it is thus reported of him: being in the depth of a passion, one of his servants (as his part then fell out) presenting Lychas, who before had from Deianeira brought him the poysoned shirt dipt in the bloud of the Centaure Nessus, he in the middest of his torture and fury finding this Lychas hid in a remote corner (appoynted him to creep into of purpose) although he was, as our tragedians use, but seemingly to kill him by some false imagined wound, yet was Caesar so extremely carryed away with the violence of his practised fury and by the perfect shape of the madnesse of Hercules, to which he had fashioned all his active spirits, that he slew him dead at his foot, and after swoong [beating] him terque quaterque (as the poet sayes) about his head.

23. It was the manner of their emperours, in those dayes, in their publicke tragedies to choose out the fittest amongst such as for capital offences were condemned to dye, and imploy them in such parts as were to be kil’d in the tragedy, who of themselves would make suit rather so to dye with resolution and by the hands of such princely actors then otherwise to suffer a shamefull and most detestable end. And these were tragedies naturally performed. And such Caius Caligula, Claudius Nero, Vitellius, Domitianus, Commodus and other Emperours of Rome, upon their festivals and holy daies of greatest consecration, used to act. Therefore M. Kid in The Spanish Tragedy, upon occasion presenting it selfe, thus writes.

These exercises as traditions have beene since (though in better manner) continued through all ages, amongst all the noblest nations of the earth. But I have promised to be altogether compendious, presuming that what before is discourst may for the practise of playes, their antiquity and dignity be altogether sufficient. I omit the shewes and ceremonies even in these times generally used amongst the Catholikes, in which by the churchmen and religious divers pageants, as of the Nativity, Passion, and Ascention, with other historicall places of the Bible, are at divers times and seasons of the yeare usually celebrated. Sed haec praeter me.

24. In the yeare of the world 4207, of Christ 246, writ certaine godly epistles to Philip, then emperour of Rome, who was the first Christian emperour, and in his life I reade that in the fourth yeare of his reigne, which was the 1000 yeare after the building of Rome, he solemnized that yeare as a jubilee with sumptuous pageants and playes. Homer, the most excellent of all Poets, composed his Illias in the shape of a tragedy, his Odisseas like a comedy. Virgil in the first of his Aeneiads, in his description of Didoes Carthage:

Which proves that in those dayes immediatly after the ruine of Troy, when Carthage had her first foundation, they built theaters with stately columnes of stone, as in his description may appeare.
25. I have sufficiently discourst of the first theaters and in whose times they were erected, even till the reigne of Julius Caesar the first emperour, and how they continued in their glory from him till the reigne of Marcus Aurelius the 23 emperour, and from him even to these times. Now to prove they were in as high estimation at Lacedemon and Athens, two the most famous citties of Greece. Cicero in his booke Cato Maior seu de Senectute, Cum Athenis ludis quidam grandis natu in theatrum venisset &^c. an ancient citizen comming into one of the Athenian theaters to see the pastimes there solemnized (which shewes that the most antient and grave frequented them) by reason of the throng, no man gave him place or reverence, but the same citizen being implyo'd in an embassy to Lacedemon, and coming like a private man into the theater, the generall multitude arose at once and with great ceremonious reverence gave his age place. This Cicero alledges to prove the reverence due to age, and this I may fitly introduce to the approbation of my present subject. Moreover, this great statesman of Rome, at whose exile twenty thousand of the chiefest Roman citizens wore mourning apparrel, oftentimes commends Plautus, calling him Plautus noster and Atticorum antiqua comedia, where he proceeds further to extoll. Aesopus for personating Ajax, and the famous actor Rupilius, in Epigonus, Medea, Melanippe, Clytemnestra and Antiopa, proceeding in the same place with this worthy and grave sentence, Ergo histrio hoc videbit in scena, quod non videbit sapiens in vita? shall a tragedian see that in his scene which a wise man cannot see in the course of his life? So in another of his workes, amongst many instructions to his sonne Marcus, he applauds Turpio Ambinius for his action, Statius, Nevius, and Plautus for their writing. Ovid in Augustum:

Luminibusque tuis totus quibus utitur orbis
Scenica vidisti lusus adulteria.

Those eyes with which you all the world suvuay,
See in your theaters our actors play.

26. Augustus Caesar, because he would have some memory of his love to those places of pastime, reared in Rome two stately obelisci or pyramides, one in Julius Caesars temple in the Field of Mars, another in the great theater called Circus Maximus, built by Flaminius. These were in height an hundred cubits apeece, in bredth foure cubits. They were first raised by King Pheron in the temple of the sunne and after removed to Rome by Augustus. The occasion of their first composure was this: Pheron for some great crime committed by him in his youth against the gods, was by them strooke blinde and so continued the space of ten yeares. But after, by a revelation in the citty Buci,s it was told that if he washt his eyes in the water of a woman that was chaste and never adulterately touch’t with any save her husband, he should againe recover his sight. The king first tride his wife, then many other of the most grave and best reputed matrons, but continued still in despaire, till at length hee met with one vertuous lady by whose chastity his sight was restored; whom (having first commanded his queene and the rest to be consumed with fire) he after married. Pheron in memory of this builded his two pyramides, after removed to Rome by Augustus:

Sanctaque maiestas et erat venerabile nomen
Vatibus.

The end of the second Booke.

III. OF ACTORS AND THE TRUE USE OF THEIR QUALITY, THE THIRD BOOKE

RAGEDIES and comedies, saith Donatus, had their beginning a rebus divinis, from divine sacrifices, they differ thus: in comedies, turbulenta prima, tranquilla ultima, in tragedyes, tranquilla prima, turbulenta ultima, vomedies begin in trouble, and end in peace, tragedies begin in calmes and end in tempest. Of comedies there be three kindes, moving comedies, called motoriae, standing comedies, called statariae, or mixt betwixt both, called mistae. They are distributed into foure parts, the Prologue, that is, the Preface; the Protasis, that is, the proposition, which includes the first Act, and presents the actors; the Epitasis, which is the businesse and body of the comedy; the last the Catastrophe, and conclusion. The definition of the comedy, according to the Latins: a discourse consisting of divers institutions, comprehending civill and domesticke things, in which is taught what in our lives and manners is to be followed, what to bee avoyded. The Greekes define it thus: κωμῳδία ἔστιν ἰδωτικῶν καὶ πολιτικῶν πραγμάτων ἀκίνδυνος περιοχή. Cicero saith a comedy is the imitation of life, the glasse of custome, and the image of truth. In Athens they had their first originall. The ancient comedians used to attire their actors thus: the old men in white as the most ancient of all; the yong men in party-coloured garments to note their diversity of thoughts; their slaves and servants in thin and bare vesture, either to note their poverty or that they might run the more lighter about their affaires; their parrasites wore robes that were turned in and intricately wrapped about them, the fortunate in white, the discontented in decayed vesture or garments growne out of fashion; the rich in purple, the poore in crimson; souldiers wore purple jackets; hand-maids the habits of strange virgins, bawds pide coates, and curtezans garments of the colour of mud to denote their covetousnesse. The stages were hung with rich arras, which was first brought from King Attalus into Rome: his state-hangings were so costly that from him all tapestries and rich arras were called Attalia. This being a thing ancient, as I have proved it, next of dignity, as many arguments have confirmed it, and now even in these dayes by the best, without exception, favourably tollerated, why should I yeeld my censure, grounded on such firme and establisht sufficiency, to any tower founded on sand, any castle built in the aire, or any triviall upstart and meere imaginary opinion?

Oderunt hilarem tristes tristemque iocosi.

2. I hope there is no man of so unsensible a spirit that can inveigh against the true and direct use of this quality. “Oh,” but say they, “the Romanes in their time and some in these dayes have abused it, and therefore we volly out our exclamations against the use.” Oh shallow! Because such a man had his house burnt we shall quite condemne the use of fire, because one man quaft poyson we must forbeare to drinke, because some have beene shipwrak’t no man shall hereafter trafficke by sea. Then I may as well argue thus: he cut his finger, therefore must I weare no knife; yond man fell from his horse, therefore must I travell a foot; that man surfeited, therfore dare not I eate. What can appeare more absurd then such a grosse and sencelesse assertion? I could turne this unpoynted weapon against his breast that aimes it at mine, and reason thus: Roscius had a large pension allowed him by the senate of Rome, why should not a actor of the like desert have the like allowance now, or this, the most famous city and nation in the world, hold playes in great admiration? Ergo, but it is a rule in Logicke, ex particularibus nihil fit. No These are not the basses we must build upon, nor the columnes that must support our architecture:

Et latro et cautus precingitur ense viator.
Ille sed insidiis sic sibi portat opem.

Both theeves and true-men weapons weare alik,
Th’one to defend, the other comes to strike.

Let us use fire to warme us, not to scortch us, to make ready our necessaries, not to burne our houses. Let us drinke to quench our thirst, not to surfet, and eate to satisfie nature, not to gormondize“

Comedia recta si mente legatur,
Constabit nulli posse nocere.

Playes are in use as they are understood,
Spectators eyes may make them bad or good.

3. Shall we condemne a generallity for any one particular misconstruction? Give me then leave to argue thus: amongst kings have there not beene some tyrants? Yet the office of a king is the image of the majesty of God. Amongst true subjects have there not crept in some false traitors? Euen amongst the twelve there was one Judas, but shall we for his fault, censure worse of the eleven? God forbid:. At thou prince or peasant? Art thou of the nobility or commonalty? Art thou merchant or souldier? Of the citty or country? Art thou preacher or auditor? Art thou tutor or pupill? There have beene of thy function bad and good, prophane and holy. I induce these instances to confirme this common argument, that the use of any generall thing is not for any one particular abuse to be condemned, for if that assertion stood firme, wee should run into many notable inconveniences.

Quis locus est templis augustior? Hanc quoque vitet,
In culpam siqua est ingeniosa suam.

4. To proceed to the matter: first, playing is an ornament to the citty, which strangers of all nations, repairing hither, report of in their countries, beholding them here with some admiration. For what variety of entertainment can there be in any citty of Christendome more then in London? But some will say this dish might be very well spared out of the banquet. To him I answere: Diogenes, that used too feede on rootes, cannot relish a march-pane {marzipan]. Secondly, our English tongue, which hath ben the most harsh, uneven, and broken language of the world, part Dutch, part Irish, Saxon, Scotch, Welsh, and indeed a gallimaffry [potpourri] of many but perfect in none, is now by this secondary meanes of playing continually refined, every writer striving in himselfe to adde a new florish unto it, so that in processe from the most rude and unpolisht tongue it is growne to a most perfect and composed language, and many excellent workers and elaborate poems writ in the same, that many nations grow inamored of our tongue (before despised.) Neither Saphicke, Ionicke, iambicke, Phaleuticke, Adonicke, gliconicke, hexamiter, tetramiter, pentamiter, Asclepediacke, choriambicke, nor any other measured verse used amongst the Greekes, Latins, Italians, French, Dutch, or Spanish writers but may be exprest in English, be it in blanke verse or meeter, in distichon or hexastichon, or in what forme or feet, or what number you can desire. Thus you see to what excellency our refined English is brought that in these daies we are ashamed of that euphony and eloquence which within these 60 yeares the best tongues in the land were proud to pronounce. Thirdly, playes have made the ignorant more apprehensive, taught the unlearned the knowledge of many famous histories, instructed such as cannot reade in the discovery of all our English chronicles, and what man have you now of that weake capacity that cannot discourse of any notable thing recorded even from William the Conquerour, nay from the landing of Brute untill this day, beeing possest of their true use? For, because playes are writ with this ayme and carryed with this methode to teach the subjects obedience to their King, to shew the people the untimely ends of such as have moved tumults, commotions, and insurrections, to present them with the flourishing estate of such as live in obedience, exhorting them to allegeance, dehorting [discouraging] them from all trayterous and fellonious stratagems:

Omne genus scripti gravitate tragedia vincit.

5. If we present a tragedy, we include the fatall and abortive ends of such as commit notorious murders, which is aggravated and acted with all the art that may be to terrifie men from the like abhorred practises; if wee present a forreigne history, the subject is so intended that in the lives of Romans, Grecians or others, either the vertues of our country-men are extolled or their vices reproved, as thus by the example of Caesar to stir souldiers to valour and magnanimity, by the fall of Pompey that no man trust in his owne strength. We present Alexander killing his friend in his rage to reprove rashnesse, Mydas choked with his gold to taxe covetousnesse, Nero against tyranny, Sardanapalus against luxury:, Nynus against ambition, with infinite others, by sundry instances either animating men to noble attempts or attaching the consciences of the spectators, finding themselves toucht in presenting the vices of others. If a morall, it is to perswade men to humanity and good life, to instruct them in civility and good manners, shewing them the fruits of honesty and the end of villany:

Versibus exponi tragicis res comica non vult.

Againe:

Et nostri proavi Plautinos et numeros et
Laudavere sales.

6. If a comedy, it is pleasantly contrived with merry accidents and intermixt with apt and witty jests to present before the prince at certain times of solemnity, or else merily fitted to the stage. And what is then the subject of this harmelesse mirth? Either in the shape of a clowne to shew others their slovenly and unhansome behaviour that they may reforme that simplicity in themselve, which others make their sport, lest they happen to become the like subject of generall scorne to an auditory [audience]; else it intreates of love, deriding foolish inamorates who spend their ages, their spirits, nay themselves in the servile and ridiculous imployments of their mistresses. And these are mingled with sportfull accidents to recreate such as of themselves are wholly devoted to melancholly, which corrupts the bloud, or to refresh such weary spirits as are tired with labour or study, to moderate the cares and heavinesse of the minde, that they may returne to their trades and faculties with more zeale and earnestnesse after some small soft and pleasant retirement. Sometimes they discourse of Pantaloones, usurers that have unthrifty sonnes, which both the fathers and sonnes may behold to their instructions; sometimes of curtesans, to divulge their subtelties and snares in which yong men may be intangled, shewing them the meanes to avoyd them. If we present a pastorall we shew the harmelesse love of sheepheards diversly moralized, distinguishing betwixt the craft of the citty and the innocency of the sheep-coat. Briefly, there is neither tragedy, history, comedy, morral or pastorall from which an infinite use cannot be gathered. I speake not in the defence of any lascivious shewes, scurrelous jeasts, or scandalous invectives. If there be any such, I banish them quite from my patronage. Yet Horace, Sermon. 1, satyr 4 thus writes.

Eupolis atque Cratinus Aristophanesque poetae,
Atque alii quorum comaedia prisca virorum est,
Si quis erat dignus describi, quod malus, aut fur,
Quod maechus foret, aut sicarius, aut alioqui
Famosus, multa cum libertate notabunt.

7. Eupolis, Cratinus, Aristophanes and other comicke poets in the time of Horace with large scope and unbridled liberty boldly and plainly scourged all such abuses as in their ages were generally practised, to the staining and blemishing of a faire and beautifull common-weale. Likewise, a learned gentleman in his Apology for Poetry speakes thus: Tragedies well handled be a most worthy kinde of poesie. Comedies make men see and shame at their faults and, proceeding further amongst other uniuersity-playes, he remembers the tragedy of Richard the Third acted in Saint Johns in Cambridge so essentially that, had the tyrant Phaleris beheld his bloudy proceedings, it had mollified his heart and made him relent at sight of his inhumane massacres. Further, he commends of comedies the Cambridge Pedantius and the Oxford Bellum Grammaticale and, leaving them, passes on to our publicke playes, speaking liberally in their praise, and what commendable use may bee gathered of them. If you peruse Margarita Poetica you may see what excellent uses and sentences he hath gathered out of Terence his Andrea, Eunuchus and the rest. Likewise out of Plautus his Amphitrio, Asinaria, and moreover ex comaediis Philodoxus, Caroli Aretini De Falso Hipocrita et Tristi Marcelli Ronsii Versellensis, et comaedia Philogenia Ugolini Parmensis, all reverend schollers and comicke poets. Reade else the 4 tragedies Philunica, Petrus, Aman, Katherina Claudii Roiletti Belnensis. But I should tire my selfe to reckon the names of all French, Roman, German, Spanish, Italian, and English poets, being in number infinite and their labours extant to approve their worthinesse.
8. Is thy minde noble, and wouldst thou be further stir’d up to magnanimity? Behold, upon the stage thou maist see Hercules, Achilles, Alexander, Caesar, Alcibiades, Lysander, Sertorius, Hannibal, Antigonus, Phillip of Macedon, Methridates of Pontus, Pyrrhus of Epire, Agesilaus among the Lacedemonians, Epaminondes amongst the Thebans, Scevola alone entring the armed tents of Porsenna, Horatius Cocles alone withstanding the whole army of the Hetrurians, Leonides of Sparta, choosing a lyon to leade a band of deers rather then one deere to conduct an army of lyons, with infinite others in their owne persons qualities and shapes animating thee with courage, deterring thee from cowardise. Hast thou of thy country well deserved and art thou of thy labour evill requited? To associate [reconcile] thee thou mayest see the valiant Roman Marcellus pursue Hannibal at Nola, conquering Syracusa, vanquishing the Gauls, all Padua, and presently (for his reward) banisht his country into Greece. There thou mayest see Scipio Africanus, now triumphing for the conquest of all Africa and immediatly exil’d the confines of Romania [Roman territory]. Art thou inclined to lust? Behold the falles of the Tarquins in the rape of Lucrece, the guerdon [reward] of luxury in the death of Sardanapalus, Appius destroyed in the ravishing of Virginia, and the destruction of Troy in the lust of Helena. Art thou proud? Our scene presents thee with the fall of Phaeton, Narcissus pining in the love of his shadow, ambitious Hamon, now calling himselfe a god and by and by thrust headlong among the divels. We present men with the uglinesse of their vices, to make them the more to abhorre them, as the Persians use, who, above all sinnes loathing drunkennesse, <were> accustomed in their solemne feasts to make their servants and captives extremely overcome with wine, and then call their children to view their nasty and lothsome behaviour, making them hate that sin in themselves which shewed so grosse and abhominable in others. The like use may be gathered of the drunkards so naturally imitated in our playes, to the applause of the actor, content of the auditory, and reproving of the vice. Art thou covetous? Go no further then Plautus his comedy called Euclio:

Dum fallax servus, durus pater, improba lena
Vixerit et meretrix blanda, Menandros erit.

While ther’s false sevant, or obdurate sire,
Sly baud, smooth whore, Menandros wee’l admire.

9. To end in a word, art thou addicted to prodigallity, envy, cruelty, perjury, flattery, or rage? Our scenes affoord thee store of men to shape your lives by, who be frugall, loving, gentle, trusty, without soothing, and in all things temperate. Wouldst thou be honourable, just, friendly, moderate, devout, mercifull, and loving concord? Thou mayest see many of their fates and ruines, who have beene dishonourable, injust, false, gluttenous, sacrilegious, bloudy-minded, and brochers [fomentors] of dissention. Women likewise that are chaste are by us extolled and encouraged in their vertues, being instanced by Diana, Belphebe, Matilda, Lucrece and the Countesse of Salisbury. The unchaste are by us shewed their errors in the persons of Phrine, Lais, Thais, Flora, and amongst us Rosamond and Mistresse Shore. What can sooner print modesty in the soules of the wanton then by discovering unto them the monstrousnesse of their sin? It followes that we prove these exercises to have beene the discoverers of many notorious murders long concealed from the eyes of the world. To omit all farre-fetcht instances, we wil probe it by a domestike and home-borne truth, which within these few yeares happened. At Lin in Norfolke, the then Earle of Sussex players acting the old History of Fryer Francis, and presenting a woman who, insatiately doting on a yong gentleman, had (the more securely to enjoy his affection) mischievously and seceretly murdered her husband, whose ghost haunted her, and at divers times in her most solitary and private contemplations, in most horrid and fearefull shapes appeared and stood before her. As this was acted, a townes-woman (till then of good estimation and report), finding her conscience (at this presenment) extremely troubled, suddenly skritched and cryd out “Oh my husband, my husband! I see the ghost of my husband fiercely threatning and menacing me.” At which shrill and unexpected out-cry the people about her, moov’d to a strange amazement, inquired the reason of her clamour, when presently un-urged she told them that seven yeares ago she, to be possest of such a gentleman (naming him), had poysoned her husband, whose fearefull image personated it selfe in the shape of that ghost. Whereupon the murdresse was apprehended, before the justices further examined, and by her voluntary confession after condemned. That this is true as well by the report of the actors as the records of the towne, there are many eye-witnesses of this accident yet living vocally to confirme it.
10. As strange an accident happened to a company of the same quality some 12 yeares ago or not so much, who playing late in the night at a place called Penryn in Cornwall, certaine Spaniards were landed the same night unsuspected and undiscovered, with intent to take in the towne, spoyle and burne it, when suddenly, even upon their entrance, the players (ignorant as the townes-men of any such attempt) presenting a battle on the stage with their drum and trumpets strooke up a lowd alarme. Which the enemy hearing, and fearing they were discovered, amazedly retired, made some few idle shot in a bravado, and so in a hurly-burly fled disorderly to their boats. At the report of this tumult the townes-men were immediatly armed and pursued them to the sea, praysing God for their happy deliverance from so great a danger, who by his proufdence made these strangers the instrument and secondary meanes of their escape from such imminent mischife and the tyranny of so remorcelesse an enemy.
11. Another of the like wonder happened at Amsterdam in Holland. A company of our English comedians (well knowne) travelling those countryes, as they were before the burgers and other the chiefe inhabitants, acting the last part of The 4 sons of Aymon, towards the last act of the history where penitent Renaldo, like a common labourer, lived in disguise, vowing as his last pennance to labour and carry burdens to the structure of a goodly church there to be erected. Whose diligence the labourers envying, since by reason of his stature and strengt, hee did vsually perfect more worke in a day then a dozen of the best, (hee working for his conscience, they for their lucres). Whereupon, <when> by reason his industry had so much disparaged their living, <they> conspired amongst themselves to kill him, waiting some opportunity to finde him asleepe, which they might easily do, since the forest labourers are the soundest sleepers and industry is the best preparative to rest. Having spy’d their opportunity, they drave a naile into his temples, of which wound immediatly he dyed. As the actors handled this, the audience might on a sodaine understand an out-cry and loud shrike in a remote gallery, and, pressing about the place, they might perceive a woman of great gravity, strangely amazed, who with a distracted and troubled braine oft sighed out these words: “Oh my husband, my husband” The play without further interruption proceeded. The woman was to her owne house conducted without any apparant suspition, every one conjecturing as their fancies led them. In this agony she some few dayes languished, and on a time, as certaine of her well disposed neighbours came to comfort her, one amongst the rest being church-warden, to him the sexton posts [hastens] to tell him of a strange thing happening him in the ripping up of a grave. “See here (quoth he) what I have found,” and shewes them a faire skull with a great nayle pierst quite through the braine-pan. But we cannot conjecture to whom it should belong, nor how long it hath laine in the earth, the grave being confused and the flesh consumed. At the report of this accident, the woman, out of the trouble of her afflicted conscience, discovered [revealed] a former murder. For 12 yeares ago, by driving that nayle into that skull, being the head of her husband, she had trecherously slaine him. This being publickly confest, she was arraigned, condemned, adjudged, and burned. But I draw my subhect to greater length then I purposed: these therefore out of other infinites I have collected, both for their familiarnesse and latenesse of memory.
12. Thus our antiquity we have brought from the Grecians in the time of Hercules, from the Macedonians in the age of Alexander, from the Romans long before Julius Caesar, and, since him, through the reigns of 23 emperours succeeding, even to Marcus Aurelius: after him they were supported by the Mantuans, Venetians, Valencians, Neopolitans, the Florentines, and others: since, by the German princes, the Palsgrave [Pfalzgraf], the Landsgrave, the Dukes of Saxony, of Brounswicke, &^c. The Cardinall at Bruxels hath at this time in pay a company of our English comedians. The French king allowes certaine companies in Paris, Orleans, besides other cities; so doth the King of Spaine in Civill, Madrid and other provinces. But in no country they are of that eminence that ours are: so our most royall and ever renouned soueraigne hath licenced us in London, so did his predecessor, the thrice vertuous virgin Queene Elizabeth, and before her her sister Queene Mary, Edward the Sixth, and their father Henry the Eighth. And before these in the tenth yeare of the reigne of Edward the Fourth, 1490, John Stowe, an ancient and grave chronicler, records (amongst other varieties tending to the like effect) that a play was acted at a place called Skinners Well fast by Clerken-well, which continued eight dayes, and was of matter from Adam and Eve, (the first creation of the world.) The spectators were no worse then the royalty of England. And amongst other commendable exercises in this place, the company of the Skinners of London held certaine yearely solemne playes. In place wherof, now in these latter daies, the wrastling and such other pastimes have been kept, and is still held about Bartholmew-tide. Also in the yeare 1390, the 14 yeare of the reigne of Richard the Second, the 18 of July, were the like enterludes recorded of at the same place, which continued 3 dayes together, the king and queene, and nobility being there present. Moreover, to this day in divers places of England there be townes that hold the priviledge of their faires and other charters by yearely stage playes, as at Manningtree in Suffolke, Kendall in the north, and others. To let these passe, as things familiarly knowne to all men.
13. Now to speake of some abuse lately crept into the quality, as an inveighing against the state, the court, the law, the citty, and their governements, with the particularizing of private mens humors (yet alive), noble-men, and others. I know it distastes many, neither do I any way approve it, nor dare I by any meanes excuse it. The liberty which some arrogate to themselves, committing their bitternesse and liberall invectives against all estates to the mouthes of children, supposing their juniority to be a priviledge for any rayling, be it never so violent, I could advise all such to curbe and limit this presumed liberty within the bands of discretion and government. But wise and juditial censurers, before whom such complaints shall at any time hereafter come, wil not (I hope) impute these abuses to any transgression in us, who have ever been carefull and provident to shun the like. I surcease to prosecute this any further, lest my good meaning be (by some) misconstrued and, fearing likewise lest with tediousnesse I tire the patience of the favourable reader, heere (though abruptly) I conclude my third and last treatis.

Sultitiam patiuntur opes, mihi parvula res est.

TO MY APPROVED GOOD FRIEND MASTER NICHOLAS OKES

HE infinite faults escaped in my booke of Britaines Troy by the negligence of the printer, as the misquotations, mistaking of sillables, misplacing halfe lines, coining of strange and never heard of words. These being without number, when I would have taken a particular account of the Errata, the printer answered me hee would not publish his owne disworkemanship, but rather let his owne fault lye upon the necke of the author. And being fearefull that others of his quality had beene of the same nature and condition, and finding you on the contrary so carefull and industrious, so serious and laborious to doe the author all the rights of the presse, I could not choose but gratulate your honest indeavours with this short remembrance. Here likewise I must necessarily insert a manifest injury done me in that worke, by taking the two epistles of Paris to Helen, and Helen to Paris, and printing them in a lesse [smaller] volume under the name of another, which may put the world in opinion I might steale them from him. And hee, to doe himselfe right, hath since published them in his owne name: but as I must acknowledge my lines not worthy his patronage, under whom he hath publisht them, so the author I know much offended with M. Jaggard (that altogether unknowne to him) presumed to make so bold with his name. These, and the like dishonesties I know you to bee cleere of; and I could wish but to bee the happy author of so worthy a worke as I could willingly commit to your care and workmanship.

Yours ever,
THOMAS HEYWOOD

Finis